How Did Manifest Destiny Affect Native American? | A Historical Impact

Understanding the concept of Manifest Destiny provides crucial insight into a pivotal period of U.S. history and its enduring consequences. This belief system, widespread in the 19th century, shaped national policy and individual actions, directly impacting the diverse Native American peoples across the continent. Examining this historical interaction helps us grasp the complex foundations of modern America.

The Ideological Foundation of Dispossession

Manifest Destiny represented a fervent belief that the United States was divinely ordained to expand its dominion across North America. This ideology held that American democratic institutions and Protestant values were superior, justifying the displacement of existing populations. Proponents argued that spreading American civilization was a moral imperative, often framing Native American presence as an impediment to progress.

• Divine Sanction: Many Americans believed God had chosen them to expand westward, seeing their success as proof of divine favor.
• Racial Superiority: The ideology frequently incorporated notions of Anglo-Saxon racial superiority, portraying Native Americans as “savages” incapable of self-governance or land stewardship.
• Economic Opportunity: The promise of vast new lands for agriculture, mining, and settlement fueled westward migration, creating immense pressure on Native American territories.

Forced Removal and the Trail of Tears

The most direct and devastating impact of Manifest Destiny on Native Americans was the policy of forced removal. The U.S. government, driven by land hunger and the belief in its right to expand, systematically relocated Native nations from their ancestral lands. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 authorized the President to negotiate treaties for their removal to lands west of the Mississippi River, often under duress.

The Cherokee Nation, along with the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole, collectively known as the “Five Civilized Tribes,” faced particularly brutal displacement from the southeastern United States. Despite adopting many aspects of American culture, including written languages and constitutional governments, their lands remained coveted for cotton cultivation and gold discovery.

The infamous “Trail of Tears” refers specifically to the forced relocation of the Cherokee Nation from their homelands in the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma) during the winter of 1838-1839. This arduous journey, executed by the U.S. Army, resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokee men, women, and children from disease, starvation, and exposure. This event stands as a stark example of the human cost of Manifest Destiny’s policies.

You can find extensive historical documents and resources on this period at the Library of Congress.

Erosion of Sovereignty and Treaty Violations

Prior to the widespread embrace of Manifest Destiny, the U.S. government often negotiated treaties with Native American nations, recognizing them as sovereign entities. These treaties typically involved land cessions in exchange for promises of protection, annuities, and defined territories. However, the ideology of Manifest Destiny undermined the very foundation of these agreements.

As westward expansion intensified, the U.S. government increasingly disregarded treaty obligations. Treaties were often renegotiated under coercive conditions, misinterpreted, or outright violated when valuable resources were discovered on Native lands. The legal status of Native nations became a point of contention, leading to landmark Supreme Court cases.

Judicial Precedents and Diminished Status

• Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831): Chief Justice John Marshall described Native American tribes as “domestic dependent nations,” establishing a unique legal status. This ruling denied the Cherokee Nation’s claim to be a foreign nation for purposes of federal jurisdiction but affirmed their distinct political existence.
• Worcester v. Georgia (1832): The Supreme Court ruled that Georgia state law had no force within Cherokee territory, reinforcing tribal sovereignty against state encroachment. President Andrew Jackson famously defied this ruling, asserting federal power to remove Native Americans regardless.

The systematic disregard for treaties and the redefinition of Native sovereignty created a legal framework for further land seizures and the eventual establishment of the reservation system, where tribes were confined to smaller, often less desirable lands.

Table 1: Key Indian Removal Policies & Acts

Policy/Act	Year	Primary Impact
Indian Removal Act	1830	Authorized forced relocation of Southeastern tribes.
Treaty of New Echota	1835	Controversial treaty leading to Cherokee removal.
Trail of Tears	1838-1839	Forced march of Cherokee, resulting in thousands of deaths.

Violence, Conflict, and Resistance

The relentless push westward, fueled by Manifest Destiny, inevitably led to widespread conflict between U.S. settlers and military forces and Native American nations. Native peoples resisted encroachment on their ancestral lands, defending their homes, resources, and ways of life. These conflicts ranged from localized skirmishes to major wars.

Major Conflicts and Massacres

• Black Hawk War (1832): A conflict in the Midwest between the United States and Native Americans led by Black Hawk, a Sauk leader, attempting to reclaim ancestral lands.
• Great Sioux War of 1876: A series of battles and negotiations between the Lakota Sioux and Northern Cheyenne and the U.S. military, including the Battle of Little Bighorn.
• Sand Creek Massacre (1864): U.S. volunteer cavalry attacked a peaceful Cheyenne and Arapaho encampment in southeastern Colorado Territory, killing and mutilating over 150 people, mostly women and children.
• Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): The tragic culmination of the U.S. Army’s efforts to suppress the Ghost Dance movement among the Lakota Sioux, resulting in the deaths of approximately 300 unarmed Lakota.

These conflicts decimated Native populations, disrupted traditional social structures, and further solidified U.S. control over vast territories. The superior military technology and sheer numbers of U.S. forces often overwhelmed Native resistance, leading to crushing defeats and further land cessions.

Assimilation Policies and Cultural Suppression

Beyond land seizure and forced removal, Manifest Destiny also manifested in policies aimed at assimilating Native Americans into mainstream American society. The goal was to eradicate Native cultures, languages, and spiritual practices, replacing them with American norms. This was often framed as a benevolent effort to “civilize” Native peoples.

Key Assimilation Strategies

1. Indian Boarding Schools: Beginning in the late 19th century, Native American children were forcibly removed from their families and sent to boarding schools. These institutions aimed to strip children of their Native identities by forbidding them to speak their languages, practice their religions, or wear traditional clothing. The motto “Kill the Indian, Save the Man” encapsulated this destructive philosophy.
2. Dawes Act (General Allotment Act) of 1887: This act sought to break up communal tribal lands into individual allotments. The intention was to promote private property ownership and farming among Native Americans, thereby dissolving tribal structures and opening up “surplus” lands to non-Native settlers. This resulted in the loss of millions of acres of Native land and further disrupted traditional economies.

The long-term effects of these assimilation policies include intergenerational trauma, loss of cultural knowledge, and the erosion of Native languages. Many Native communities today continue to grapple with the legacy of these policies.

Historical sites and educational programs related to these policies are preserved and interpreted by organizations like the National Park Service.

Table 2: Major Assimilation Policies

Policy/Act	Year	Primary Method
Indian Boarding Schools	Late 19th – Mid 20th C.	Forcible removal of children, cultural suppression.
Dawes Act (General Allotment Act)	1887	Break-up of communal lands, individual ownership.
Indian Citizenship Act	1924	Granted U.S. citizenship to all Native Americans.

Economic and Social Disruption

The impact of Manifest Destiny extended deeply into the economic and social fabric of Native American nations. The loss of vast territories meant the destruction of traditional hunting grounds, agricultural lands, and access to vital resources. This undermined self-sufficiency and forced many tribes into poverty and dependence on the federal government.

• Resource Depletion: Westward expansion often involved the decimation of bison herds, a central resource for many Plains tribes, for food, clothing, and shelter. Mining operations polluted water sources and destroyed sacred sites.
• Breakdown of Trade Networks: Established inter-tribal trade routes and economic systems were disrupted by forced removals and the imposition of reservation boundaries.
• Increased Disease: Contact with settlers introduced new diseases against which Native Americans had no immunity, leading to devastating epidemics that further reduced populations.
• Social Dislocation: The fracturing of tribal communities, forced relocation, and the imposition of foreign governance structures caused profound social dislocation and instability.

Long-Term Repercussions and Enduring Legacy

The legacy of Manifest Destiny continues to shape Native American experiences today. The policies enacted during this period resulted in the loss of over 90% of Native American land, leaving tribes with a fragmented land base. The struggles for self-determination, treaty rights, and cultural revitalization are ongoing efforts rooted in this historical period.

Native American nations continue to advocate for the protection of their remaining lands, water rights, and cultural heritage. The resilience of Native peoples, their languages, traditions, and spiritual practices, stands as a testament to their enduring strength despite centuries of systemic pressure. Understanding Manifest Destiny is essential for comprehending the historical injustices and ongoing challenges faced by Native American communities.