How Did Mexico Get Its Independence? | A Complex Struggle

Understanding Mexico’s path to independence reveals a deep struggle against centuries of colonial power. This historical period shaped the nation’s identity, reflecting the aspirations and conflicts of its diverse population. It offers valuable insights into the forces that drive movements for self-determination.

The Seeds of Discontent in New Spain

Spanish colonial rule, established for nearly 300 years, created a rigid social hierarchy and economic system in New Spain. Peninsulares, those born in Spain, held the highest positions in government, church, and military. Creoles, Spaniards born in the Americas, occupied a secondary but still privileged status, often resenting their exclusion from top offices.

Below them were mestizos (mixed European and indigenous ancestry), indigenous populations, and enslaved Africans, who faced severe discrimination and exploitation. This caste system generated widespread resentment. Economic policies prioritized Spain’s interests, extracting vast wealth in silver and agricultural products, while limiting local industrial development and trade.

Enlightenment ideas advocating for liberty, equality, and popular sovereignty began to circulate among educated creoles. The American Revolution (1776) and the French Revolution (1789) provided tangible examples of successful challenges to established monarchies. These intellectual currents fueled desires for reform and self-governance, even if initially not full independence.

A pivotal external event was Napoleon Bonaparte’s invasion of Spain in 1808. This led to the abdication of King Ferdinand VII and the installation of Napoleon’s brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as monarch. This power vacuum in Spain destabilized colonial authority, prompting creoles in New Spain to question the legitimacy of the interim government and consider forming their own juntas, similar to what was happening in Spain itself.

The Cry of Dolores and Hidalgo’s Uprising

The movement for independence formally began on September 16, 1810, with the “Grito de Dolores.” Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Creole priest in the town of Dolores, Guanajuato, issued a call to arms. His sermon urged local indigenous and mestizo populations to rise against the “bad government” and fight for liberty. This act marked a dramatic shift from intellectual discourse to armed conflict.

Hidalgo’s initial objectives included ending slavery, abolishing the tribute system imposed on indigenous peoples, and returning land. His army, a largely undisciplined but passionate multitude, grew rapidly, numbering tens of thousands. They marched through central Mexico, capturing towns and cities, including Guanajuato, where a brutal massacre of royalist peninsulares occurred.

The social composition of Hidalgo’s rebellion was distinct. It drew heavily from the lower classes, including indigenous people, mestizos, and poor farmers, who sought not only independence but also significant social and economic reforms. This popular uprising alarmed many creole elites, who feared a social revolution more than they desired independence from Spain.

Despite initial successes, Hidalgo’s forces failed to capture Mexico City. Internal divisions, lack of military discipline, and the organized resistance of the Spanish royalist army led to their defeat. Hidalgo was captured in 1811, defrocked, and executed by firing squad. His head, along with those of other leaders, was displayed publicly as a warning.

Morelos and the Formalization of the Movement

Following Hidalgo’s death, José María Morelos y Pavón, another priest and a former student of Hidalgo, assumed leadership of the independence movement. Morelos proved to be a more effective military strategist and a clearer political thinker. He organized a disciplined army and established a more coherent political program.

Morelos convened the Congress of Chilpancingo in 1813. Here, he presented his foundational document, “Sentiments of the Nation,” which formally declared Mexico’s independence from Spain. This document outlined principles for a new nation, including a republican form of government, the abolition of slavery and the caste system, and the equal distribution of land. It represented a significant step towards defining the political and social goals of the independence movement.

The Congress of Chilpancingo also drafted the Constitution of Apatzingán in 1814, a comprehensive document that further articulated the vision for an independent Mexican republic. This constitution, though never fully implemented due to ongoing warfare, demonstrated the intellectual depth and commitment to self-governance within the rebel leadership. Morelos’s campaigns achieved significant military victories, controlling large parts of southern Mexico.

Like Hidalgo, Morelos was eventually captured by royalist forces. He was tried, defrocked, and executed in 1815. His death marked another setback for the independence cause, dispersing the organized rebel armies into smaller, localized guerrilla units. For a deeper understanding of the political ideas that shaped these movements, one might consult resources from Khan Academy.

Key Figures in Early Mexican Independence

Figure	Role	Key Contribution
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla	Priest, Initiator	Grito de Dolores (1810), sparked popular uprising.
José María Morelos y Pavón	Priest, Military Leader	Sentiments of the Nation (1813), organized forces, defined political goals.
Vicente Guerrero	Guerrilla Leader	Maintained resistance after Morelos, allied with Iturbide.

The Guerrilla Phase and Shifting Loyalties

After Morelos’s execution, the independence movement entered a prolonged guerrilla phase. Large-scale battles became less frequent, replaced by smaller, localized skirmishes and resistance efforts. Leaders like Vicente Guerrero and Guadalupe Victoria maintained the flame of rebellion in remote areas, particularly in the rugged terrain of southern Mexico.

Spanish royalist forces, led by experienced officers, continued their efforts to suppress the insurgency. The return of King Ferdinand VII to the Spanish throne in 1814, after Napoleon’s defeat, further complicated matters. Ferdinand VII revoked the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 and reasserted absolutist rule, aiming to restore full control over the colonies.

The royalist army effectively contained the rebellion for several years, reducing its scope and influence. Many creoles who had initially sympathized with independence became disillusioned by the violence and radical social demands of the early uprisings. They preferred the stability of Spanish rule to the perceived chaos of a popular revolution.

This period saw a stalemate. The royalists could not entirely extinguish the guerrilla resistance, and the rebels lacked the strength to achieve a decisive victory. The political landscape remained tense, with underlying grievances persisting despite the apparent suppression of the movement.

The Liberal Turn in Spain and Its Mexican Impact

A significant external event dramatically altered the course of Mexican independence in 1820. A liberal revolution erupted in Spain, led by General Rafael del Riego. This uprising forced King Ferdinand VII to reinstate the liberal Constitution of 1812, which had been abolished upon his return to power.

The reestablishment of the liberal Spanish Constitution had profound implications for New Spain. Many conservative creoles and royalists in Mexico, who had previously supported the Spanish crown, grew alarmed. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 included provisions that threatened the privileges of the church, the military, and the landed aristocracy in the colonies. It also promoted free trade and curtailed the power of the monarchy.

These elites feared that the liberal reforms would erode their traditional power, wealth, and social status. They saw independence, paradoxically, as a means to preserve the existing conservative order in New Spain, free from the dictates of a newly liberalized Spain. This shift in perspective among conservative creoles transformed the independence movement, broadening its base to include groups previously loyal to the crown. For more historical documents from this era, the Library of Congress provides extensive archives.

Key Documents and Principles of Independence

Document/Event	Year	Core Principles
Grito de Dolores	1810	Call to arms, end of bad government, social justice.
Sentiments of the Nation	1813	Formal independence, republicanism, abolition of slavery/caste.
Plan of Iguala	1821	Three Guarantees: Religion, Independence, Union.

Iturbide’s Pragmatic Alliance and the Plan of Iguala

Agustín de Iturbide, a highly effective royalist officer who had fought against Hidalgo and Morelos, emerged as a central figure. Recognizing the shifting political tides and the inevitability of independence, Iturbide changed his allegiance. He sought to achieve independence in a way that protected the interests of the creole elite, the church, and the military.

In February 1821, Iturbide issued the Plan of Iguala. This document proposed a conservative path to independence based on three main “guarantees”:

• Religion: Roman Catholicism would be the sole religion of the new nation.
• Independence: Mexico would be an independent constitutional monarchy, ideally with a European prince as its ruler.
• Union: Peninsulares and creoles would be treated equally, ensuring social stability and preventing a radical social revolution.

The Plan of Iguala was designed to appeal to a broad spectrum of Mexican society, from conservative creoles and royalists who feared Spanish liberalism, to the remaining insurgents who sought independence. Iturbide then sought an alliance with Vicente Guerrero, one of the last remaining prominent guerrilla leaders. Their famous “Embrace of Acatempan” symbolized the unification of former adversaries under the banner of independence.

The Treaty of Córdoba and Final Victory

The Plan of Iguala gained rapid support across New Spain. Royalist forces, demoralized by the political changes in Spain and the broad appeal of Iturbide’s plan, began to defect. When Juan O’Donojú, the last Spanish Viceroy, arrived in New Spain in August 1821, he found the colonial government’s authority largely collapsed.

Recognizing the futility of continued resistance, O’Donojú met with Iturbide. On August 24, 1821, they signed the Treaty of Córdoba. This treaty officially recognized Mexican independence and largely ratified the Plan of Iguala. It stipulated that Mexico would be an independent constitutional monarchy, with a European monarch invited to rule.

On September 27, 1821, Agustín de Iturbide and the Army of the Three Guarantees triumphantly entered Mexico City. This event marked the culmination of an eleven-year struggle. The following day, September 28, 1821, the Provisional Governing Junta of New Spain issued the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, formally proclaiming the birth of a new nation.